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Basic Overview of How Wine is Made

A simplified definition of wine is fermented grape juice. Wine can be made from all kinds of fruits, or even dandelions. If the wine is made from anything other than grapes, it must be indicated on the label. For our purposes, we will be referring only to wines that are made from grapes.

One very important factor in producing good wines is the timing of the harvest. Grapes contain both acidity and natural sugars (sweetness). If harvested too early, the grapes may be too acidic. If harvested too late, the grapes may be too sweet.  The trick for the wine producer is to pick the grapes at the time when the desired balance between these two factors is achieved. Winemakers have a couple of ways to aid them in determining the proper timing. One way is to taste individual grapes throughout the vineyard just prior to them reaching maturity. Another way is to use a refractometer.  By smearing grape juice on its lens, and holding it up to the light, the refractometer indicates the percentage of sugar in the juice. Warmer climate areas produce grapes with higher sugar levels, just as cooler climate areas produce grapes with higher acid levels.

When the harvest begins, it is done either by hand or by machinery. Mechanical harvesters are designed to straddle the rows of vines and remove the grapes by shaking the vines. This method is less labour intensive, but can only be used in vineyards with widely planted rows and slopes that are not too steep.

Once the grapes have been picked, they are passed through a de-stemming machine and crusher. The resulting combination of juice, grape skins, pulp and seeds is referred to as must.  If left alone at this point, the juice would start to ferment on its own with help from wild yeasts that are present on the grape skins.  Fermentation is made possible when yeast reacts with the sugars in the grape juice to create alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO2).  Though some wineries rely on using these wild yeasts, most use cultivated yeasts.  Cultivated yeasts create a controlled and predictable fermentation, and if enough is added to the must, it will override or nullify the wild yeast. The longer fermentation is allowed to continue, the drier the wine will be, because the yeast has more time to convert more of the sugars into alcohol and CO2. Most types of yeast become inactive once the alcohol level of the wine reaches 15%.

At this point, the process differs slightly depending on the colour of wine to be made. The colour comes from the grape skins and not the juice. In the production of red wine, red grape skins are left in contact with the must during the fermentation process to extract the colour.  The depth of colour is relative to the grape variety being used, since each differs in its hue (shade) of red and the thickness of its skin. In the production of rosé wines, the red grape skins are left in contact with the must until the desired colour is attained, and then removed. In the production of white wine, the skins are removed almost immediately after crushing. Since the colour of the wine comes from the grape skins, a red grape can produce a red or white wine (by removing the skins). A white grape can only produce a white wine.

Once the fermentation process is completed, the wine is transferred into stainless steel tanks, glass-lined tanks or oak barrels. The amount of time a wine is aged depends on the type and style of wine the winemaker wishes to produce. Most commercial bulk wines are stored in large tanks and bottled within one year of the harvest. These wines lack the character of wines aged in oak and are meant to be enjoyed at a young age. Quality red wines may age in oak for a couple of years. Quality white wines may spend a few months in oak.

Most wines go through a filtering process called racking. Racking is the process of transferring the clear wine from a barrel or tank into a clean new one, leaving the sediment behind. This can be done three to four times before the wine becomes clear.  Some wines may go through a further filtering process called fining. Materials such as egg whites and bentonite (powdery clay) are added to the wine to capture suspended microscopic particles by absorption or coagulation. This causes the particles to settle to the bottom. Wines may also be passed through filter pads. While these methods enhance the clarity of wine, they can strip some of the flavouring elements if it is filtered too much.

When the wines are ready to be bottled, they are passed through the filling machine, and then through the corking and labelling machines. In the final stage, the wine is boxed and sent to the warehouse for storing/maturation or shipping.

Conditions affecting wine production

Grapes grow well in conditions where summers are warm and winters are mild.  Keeping this in mind, today’s vineyards are located between 30º and 52º north latitude and between 30º and 40º south latitude.  Vineyards require a minimum of 1,300 hours of sunshine per year, with an average summer temperature of not below 18ºC and an average year-round temperature of not below 8ºC.

In order to attain these conditions, many wineries are located adjacent to coastal areas.  This is because coastal areas provide a more moderate climate in their immediate proximity compared to that of the interior.  In areas where it would be far too hot to grow grapes in the interior, the coastline provides cool fog that helps to moderate the temperature of its surrounding area.  The opposite is true in cooler climate areas.  The coast provides a moderate climate because the sun warms its waters during the daylight hours and the evaporation of that water keeps the area warmer in the evenings. The commonly misused word microclimate is often used to describe this type of vineyard climate. A more accurate term would be mesoclimate.   The distances used when describing a microclimate are usually measured in millimetres to a maximum of a few metres, while mesoclimate encompasses up to hundreds of metres.

It is often difficult for those vineyards located near the upper northern latitude to ripen grapes with a high enough level of natural sugar.  In areas where the climate is too cool to ripen grapes properly, or during poor growing years, a process called chaptalization is often used.  Chaptalization is the addition of sugar before or during fermentation to increase the level of alcohol.   This is based on the equation yeast + sugar = alcohol & carbon cioxide.  Chaptalization is only allowed in certain countries. Although it is legal in Germany, wines made with the use of this process are outlawed for Qualitätswien mit Pradikat wines.

Soil, vine variety, climate, site and the vintner are five factors that can determine the quality of a wine.  It is debatable as to just how much the soil influences the enjoyment and quality of the wine in your glass. Very few of us could recognize the soil from which a wine’s grapes were grown. The soil in which grapevines are planted can vary from clay, limestone, chalk and sand to gravel.  It is extremely important to plant the proper vine variety in the soil it is best suited for to produce grapes of good yield and quality.  

Climate is a crucial factor that can contribute to the success or failure of a growing season.  Like the soil, climate impacts vine selections because not all vines are suited to all climates.  Different climate extremes are to be dealt with even in the earliest stages of the vine growth.  The vintner has to deal with a variety of different temperatures, levels of precipitation and wind.  With the exception of using some mechanical equipment to aid in a particular weather crisis, a vineyard’s location plays a key role in moderating, and even taking advantage of, some of these factors. A vineyard’s site is more crucial to those dealing with extreme climate conditions, such as the outer extremities of the north and south latitudes.  The site of a vineyard is important to maximize benefit from the sun’s exposure (northern latitude) and to minimize exposure to wind and frost.  Many northern vineyards face south to take advantage of as much sunlight as possible.  The slope is equally important when considering the drainage of precipitation. Proximity to water is also a consideration in the mesoclimate.

It takes the skilful hand of a knowledgeable vintner to be able to tend the vines in order to produce quality grapes. It is also essential for those quality grapes to be vinified properly, so that you end up with a quality wine.  There are many factors that can occur before, during and after vinification (oxidation for example) to lower the quality of a wine from a quality harvest.  Among these factors is the possibility of human error.

A year in the vineyard

Spring

The growing season begins in spring.  Buds remaining on the vines from winter pruning begin a rebirth after their dormant period by sprouting into tiny shoots.  From early to mid-spring, frost threatens to damage the vulnerable shoots, especially for varieties that bud early, such as Chardonnay.  Some vineyards use heaters to help prevent this from happening.  They are spaced throughout the vineyard to help elevate the temperature at vine height to above –1ºC, where damage can be done.  Wind machines can also be used to fight against the frost.   They act like a giant mixer taking the cold air at ground level and mixing it with the warmer air above. 

Flowering occurs approximately 2½ months after the tiny shoots appear.  Tiny vine flowers appear from each bud, and a proportion will become fertilized. These will become berries, depending on the weather.  These fragile flowers can be damaged by high winds that will reduce the size of the crop.  Warm, dry and sunny weather is crucial during this period of flowering.  If the weather is cold and plagued with prolonged rain, the crop can be affected by what is known as coulure. This is the failure of grape development after flowering, which can reduce the yield considerably if it is widespread throughout the vineyard.  It should be mentioned that the quality of the unaffected grapes would not change due to coulure if it were to occur in the vineyard.      

Summer

This is the transitional season when the original bare vine transforms to a luscious bloom of vegetation.  This is also the time that many vintners will spray the vineyard to combat against vine disease, which is more prevalent in years when the humidity is high.  There are some producers that may practice crop thinning, otherwise known as summer pruning, in years when the grapevines are too productive.  This skilled process involves cutting off individual bunches by hand to concentrate the vine’s energy on the remaining grapes, therefore producing a higher quality crop.  This thinning process can also be used for the canopy (leaves) if the growth is too productive.  In years in which there is little water, the canopy is subject to water stress.  Slowing its growth a little may be beneficial.   

The development of the grapes is most notable during the stage of veraison, which marks the beginning stages of ripening.  During veraison, the berries change from a small, hard green berry into a larger, softened and coloured berry (colour depends on variety).  Acidity levels in the berries decreases while the sugars increase during veraison.   It should be noted that not all of the berries on the vines show veraison at the same time.  Berries located on the outside of the bunches that are exposed to the sun ripen first. Those that are located in the canopy shade ripen last.  Veraison occurs approximately six to seven weeks after the completion of flowering, but areas that receive warm, sunny and dry weather experience veraison earlier.     

Fall
This is the harvesting season, when the vintner makes crucial decisions on the timing of the harvest and the style of wine to be made. The timing depends on the health and characteristics of the grapes, the weather forecast and the grape varieties.  Early ripening varieties such as Chardonnay and Pinot Noir may be harvested several weeks prior to late-ripening varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon. They may also be harvested months ahead of late-harvested sweet wine varieties such as Vidal (for the production of ice wines).  The grapes are tested frequently to check for the desired balance of acidity and sweetness.  The weather forecast is very important when considering the timing of the harvest.  A vintner may be influenced to start the harvest earlier than normal if the forecast calls for rain.  Water from rain will be drawn up through the root system and into the grapes, thereby diluting the flavours.  Frost is another forecast consideration as to when the harvest may take place.

From the onset of veraison, the shoots start to change from green and springy to brown and hard.  The canopy (leaves) turns colour and falls off as it gets later in the season, notably after the first signs of frost.  This transformation is a sign that the vines are starting to store energy for the winter and the following year.

Winter
The only activity a vineyard sees in the winter would be pruning and perhaps picking frozen grapes for the production of Ice Wine/Eiswein, which can take place as late as January in Germany.  There is no rule for the precise timing of pruning, but it is extremely important as it helps determine the yield of the crop in the upcoming months.  By leaving a specific number of buds on the vine, the vintner can determine the number of bunches each vine will likely produce and the shape of the vine during the growing season.  The art of pruning is one that requires knowledge and skill, making it one of the more expensive operations, since only qualified people can do the job.

Pruning is more important for vine growth in cooler growing areas due to the minimal energy that the sun and its warmth provide.  It is easier for a vine to concentrate its energy to produce ripe quality grapes with fewer bunches, rather than exhausting the limited energy toward a larger yield. In extremely harsh winters, like those in Canada and Germany, vines may be routinely banked up so that they can survive the extreme frosts.

There has been no mention of specific months for these tasks to be done, as they vary according to the hemisphere where the vineyards are located. As a rough generalization, vineyards located in the northern hemisphere harvest grapes in September and October, while those located in the southern hemisphere harvest from February to April.

Types of Wines

The types and styles of wine on the market today are astronomical. Fortunately, all of these wines will fall under one of the following four groupings:

Table Wine – red, rosé, or white still wine. The alcohol content usually ranges between eight and 15%. It is usually enjoyed with a meal.

Fortified Wine – red, rosé or white wine, to which a spirit (commonly brandy) has been added during fermentation to elevate the alcohol content to, usually, between 16-20%. This process kills the yeast. If the spirit is added prior to allowing all of the sugars to convert into alcohol, the wine will be sweeter.   Ports and sherry are examples of fortified wines, though the production method of each is different.   

Sparkling Wine – usually a white or rosé. It contains carbon dioxide, giving it fizz. The alcohol content usually ranges between 7-14%. It can be consumed at anytime and paired with practically any meal.  

Aperitif – red, rosé or white fortified wine (has a spirit added to it), to which aromatic herbs have been added. The alcohol content usually ranges between 16-20%. It is usually served as an aperitif, or as part of a mix.

Blends and varietal wines

Blends – wines that are created by blending different wines together with the intent of producing a better composite than any of them individually.  The wines used for blending could be made from different grape varieties, vintages, regions and characteristics.  With the flexibility allowed to the vintner (mixing and matching wines), it is possible and intended to create a wine that is consistent in taste from year to year. Some people perceive blends as being inferior to varietals. Though this may be true for some of the lower quality blends, we should keep in mind that some of the best wines in the world, like those from Bordeaux, are blends.

Varietals – a term that is used to identify the name of the principal grape variety from which a wine is made. Each appellation determines the minimum percentage required for that variety to make up the wine (e.g., in Canada, a single varietal must contain a minimum of 85% of the named variety).  Unlike blends, varietal wines taste different from year to year.  This is due in part to the limitation of adding different blended characteristics to the varietal (15% in Canada). Since the grapes used in varietals are usually from the same region, the varying growing conditions influence the quality annually.  This is why vintages (the year that the grapes are harvested to make the wine) are so important to the consumer. 

It is becoming common to see varietals that name the two most dominant grape varieties.  Although appellation regulations differ from one another concerning the breakdown of grape percentages for dual varietals, the first variety listed is always the most dominant of the two (e.g., Cabernet Sauvignon/Merlot). A new labelling concept identifying a dual varietal consisting of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc is identified by the name Cabernet or Cabernets. This description is less specific because it does not specify which Cabernet is dominant.

Vine species

Vitis Labrusca [VEE-this luh-BRUHS-kuh] Vine species native to North America.  They are resistant to vine and pest disease, produce high yields and are suited to a cooler climate.  Unfortunately they have a foxy flavour.

Catawba[kuh-TAW-bah] Deep pink (light red) grape variety that is commonly used in making rosé, white still and sparkling wines, with the foxy flavour characteristic of labrusca.

Concord [KAHN-kord] Dark blue/black grape variety that produces a wine with a pronounced foxy flavour.

Delaware [del–ah –ware] Dark pink grape variety that ripens early and produces wines with a less notable foxy flavour compared to other labrusca varieties.

Niagara [ni-AG-ruh] White grape variety that produces wines with a sweetness level commonly between medium and sweet.  It also has a very pronounced foxy flavour.

Hybrid [HI-brihd] Crossbreeding of two different vine species to produce a hybrid with attributes from both species.

Bacchus [BAK-uhs] White grape variety often blended with Muller-Thurgau to go into Liebfraumilch.  Bacchus tends to be low in acidity, but has a good character and aroma.

Baco Noir [BAH-koh NWAHR] Red grape variety that is commonly used for making a light, fruitier wine without the foxy flavour of labrusca.  It is commonly used for blending.

L’Acadie Blanc [lah-kah-DEE BLAHN] White grape variety that is used for producing dry, fruity white wines.  Grown in Nova Scotia.

Maréchal Foch [MAH-ray-shahl FOHSH] Red grape variety that ripens very early and is able to overcome harsh winters.  The characteristics are often similar to the light, red fruity wines of Beaujolais.

Muller-Thurgau [MEW-luhr TOOR—gow] White grape variety typically used to produce medium sweet wines with low acidity.  It is the most widely cultivated grape variety in Germany.

Pinot Gris [PEE-noh GREE] This grape variety has a greyish hue to it, thus its name Gris, which is French for grey.  Wines made from this variety can range from white to slightly pink.  Among many of its other known names throughout the world, you are probably familiar with Pinot Grigio, which is its Italian version.

Portugieser [por-chuh-GHEE-zer] Red (black) grape variety that is somewhat popular in Germany and Austria, where it is synonymous for making slightly sweet, rosé to light red wines.  Portugieser is also used as one of the blends in the Hungarian wine known as Bull’s Blood.

Seyval Blanc [say-vahl BLAHN] White grape variety that ripens early and is used for producing somewhat acidic, crisp white wines with a hint of grapefruit.

Vidal Blanc [vee-dahl BLAHN] White grape variety that achieves both high sugar and good acidity levels.  It is valued for its winter heartiness and is best known for late harvest and ice wines produced in Canada.

Vitis Vinifera [VEE-this vihn-IHF-uh-ruh] Vine species native to Europe, otherwise known as "noble varieties", that produce the majority of today’s wine worldwide.

Wine and food pairing

You may want to follow the traditional rules of wine, which are:

• Colour of food determines colour of wine
• White wine with fish or white meat
• White wine stands alone better without food (aperitif)
• Red wine usually goes better with cheese

Today’s rules are as follows:

• Drink whatever wine you like regardless of the meal or occasion
• Sparkling wine goes with any meal and stands alone well
• Only the sweetest white wines (still or sparkling) will hold up to a sweet, gooey dessert
• If a wine is good enough to drink, it is good enough to cook with.

Match the wine according to the way a meal is prepared, rather than basing it solely on the type of food being served.

Example: Two salmon steaks, one prepared in a teriyaki sauce and the other prepared in a lemon sauce. If a Cabernet Sauvignon were served, it would match well with the bold teriyaki-flavoured salmon. Yet, it would be a terrible combination with the salmon prepared in lemon sauce. A Sauvignon Blanc would pair better with the salmon in lemon sauce because one main characteristic of a Sauvignon Blanc is that it is acidic. Try to match the characteristic of the grape with the flavour of the meal.

Suggestions:

• Sauvignon Blanc with a lemon sauce (acidic/acidic)
• Gewürztraminer with a spice meal (spicy/spicy)
• Cabernet Sauvignon with a teriyaki sauce (bold/bold)
• Riesling with a fruity dish (fruity/fruity)

Many chefs will serve the same wine they have used in preparation of the meal.

Red grape varieties

Cabernet Sauvignon [ka-behr-NAY soh-vihn-YOHN] – produces some of the world’s best wines, which tend to be very bold and tannic.  Its fruity flavours have been described as cherry, black cherry, black current and raspberry. Additionally, other flavours include minty, cedar and bell peppers. The word tobacco is often used in describing older vintages.

Cabernet Franc [ka-behr-NAY FRAHNGK] –has fewer tannins and less acidity than Cabernet Sauvignon. However, it is more aromatic and herbaceous. Its bouquet most closely resembles that of pencil shavings.

Merlot [mehr-LOH] –ripens fairly early and has higher sugar levels, but lower tannins. High quality Merlot wines are rich and fruity, with the characteristics of black current, cherry and mint.

Pinot Noir [PEE-noh NWAHR] – when young, good Pinot Noir wines exhibit simpler fruity characteristics of cherry, plums, raspberries and strawberries. As these wines mature, they display a variety of complex characteristics, including chocolate, game, figs, prunes, smokiness, truffles and violets.

Gamay [ga-MAY] – is a light-to-medium-weight wine with high acid and low tannins. Light purple and fruity, Gamay wines can be consumed at a young age.  They suggest flavours of bananas, berries and peaches.

Maréchal Foch [MAY-ray-shahl FOHSH] –this French hybrid was originally developed in the Loire region of France, but is rarely found there today. It is presently cultivated in Canada and the eastern United States. It ripens very early and is able to overcome harsh winters.  The characteristics are often similar to the light, red fruity wines of Beaujolais.   

Shiraz (Syrah) [shur-az (see-RAH)]–this grape produces deep-coloured and tannic wines with spicy and peppery characteristics when young.  As they slowly mature, they take on characteristics of black currents, plums and sweet blackberries.  Only Australia and South Africa use the name Shiraz. The rest of the world uses Syrah (although it is the same grape variety).    
Zinfandel [ZIHN-fuhn-dehl]-this red grape variety is used in varying styles of wine. Unlike its name, White Zinfandel primarily ranges from light-to-dark-pink fruity wines.  Zinfandel can produce light to hearty robust red wines that are high in tannins, alcohol and complexity.

Grenache [gruh-NAHSH] – has both a red and white variety. Grenache refers to the red version, Grenache Noir, which can be high in sugar and alcohol when grown in warm regions.  Grenache Noir grapes are lacking in tannins, can range from pale to robust red wines, and are usually sweet and fruity.  White Grenache (Grenache Blanc) is the white variety of this grape that produces wines high in alcohol and low in acidity with a good bouquet.

White grape varieties

Sauvignon Blanc [SOH-vihn-yohn BLAHN]–wines made from this grape are noticeably acidic and have a grassy, herbal aroma and flavour. They are crisp, flavourful wines that generally should be enjoyed young.

Chardonnay [shar-doh-NAY] - is probably the leader in white wine production around the world. Some of the flavour characteristics can be described as buttery, creamy, smoky, nutty, tobacco, tea, vanilla, steely, appley, lemon, melon and pineapple. Characteristics differ when the Chardonnay has been stored in oak barrels as opposed to stainless steel vats.

Riesling [REEZ-ling] –has the ability to retain its acidity while achieving high sugar levels. This enables it to produce wines with considerable aging potential. Riesling wines are delicate but complex and are characterized by spicy, fruity flavours, a floral-scented bouquet and a long finish.

Chenin Blanc [SHEN-ihn BLAHN] - because of its high acid content, it is often blended with other wines to make it more balanced. It has floral characteristics and hints of melon.

Gewürztraminer [guh-VURTS-trah-mee-ner] - the German word gewurtz means spiced, and these wines are known for their crisp and spicy attributes. They are highly fragrant, with characteristics of spices such as cloves and nutmeg, and a floral bouquet.

Colombard [KAHL-umh-bahrd] – also known as French Colombard when grown in California, has the ability to grow well in hot climates and still produce a decent wine.  The grape produces spicy, floral wines that are often moderately dry.

Pinot Blanc [PEE-noh BLAHN] – was once thought to be a Chardonnay, but has since been proven to be in the Pinot family of grapes. The characteristics are less complex and flavourful than Chardonnay but are noted for their dry, yeasty, apple aromas and hints of spiciness.

Vidal[vee-dahl] – a French hybrid white grape that achieves both high sugar and good acidity levels.  The grape is valued for its winter heartiness, and is best known for the sweet late harvests and ice wines produced in Canada.  

Muscadet [MUHS-kuht] – another name for the white grape Melon de Bourgogne that makes light, dry wines produced from the Loire valley in France.  Wines labeled mise en bouteille sur lie means that the wine is bottled off their lees (sediment accumulated during fermentation and aging) without being filtered.

Appellations

France   |   Germany   |   Canada   |   Italy

Appellations are designated growing areas governed by the rules and regulations established by their federal government and local governing body. Such rules vary from country to country, but are somewhat similar in their attempt to stimulate the production of quality wines. 

France

To many of us, France is wine. France makes more wine than any other country except Italy, which sometimes wins the race for quantity but only occasionally approaches France’s quality. France’s wines are considered to be among the finest in the world, and are the model by which almost all others are judged.  Its perfectly temperate and varied climate, soil, and landscape can supply wines of virtually every style. Such famous regions as Bordeaux, Champagne, Burgundy, Loire, and Alsace, to name a few, produce very unique, high-quality wines.  Many larger appellations have separate smaller appellations within them (e.g., Bordeaux has five main appellations within it, each with its own regulations). 

The government strictly controls wine production in France. There are four classifications of French wines – Vin de Table (VDT), Vin de Pays (VDT), Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) and Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC).

• Vin de Table –table wine is the most basic level. The regulations governing its production are minimal.
• Vin de Pays –country wine was created to improve the general level of basic table wine. There are limits on yields (amount of wine produced), but regulations are far more relaxed than for VDQS or AOC wines.
• VDQS – second -highest quality wines with stricter rules than VDT and VDP wines but still less than the AOC. This category is becoming less recognized, with over twenty VDQS areas being promoted to AOC.
• AOC –is the top designation for French wines. Some examples of the strict regulations AOC wines must comply with are vineyard geographical location, specific grape varieties, permissible yield, alcohol content and an official tasting panel to judge the wines.

Germany

German vineyards are among the most northerly in the world (between 47º and 52º north latitude). Germany’s cooler climate makes it difficult to produce sweet wines, and makes it overwhelmingly a white wine producer because red grapes don’t ripen well under such conditions.

Appellations in other countries are geographic in nature and have specific regulations controlling each area. Germany, however, chose to base its wine quality on levels of ripeness and sweetness of the grapes. The focus on sugar content embodies the theory that grapes with higher sugar levels are riper and, therefore, yield richer wines with deep colours, intense flavours and favourable bouquets.

The German Wine Laws of 1971 set up two categories for defining the quality of German wines, Tafelwein and Qualitätswein.

Deutscher Tafelwein –is basic table wine, usually a low-quality blend. Deutscher tafelwein specifies German wine, whereas tafelwein used on its own indicates that the wine is not German.

Landwein - is the equivalent to France's vin de pays wines. Wines that carry this description are either dry or semi-dry and use landwein in the name on the label, but the label should indicate country of origin.

Qualitätswein Bestimmter Anbaugebiet (QbA) –is quality wine that is produced from one of 13 specified growing regions and cannot contain wine from any other region. These wines must have a certain sugar level and a minimum alcohol content. Chaptalization (the addition of sugar before or during fermentation to increase the level of alcohol) is allowed in QbA wines to achieve the minimum alcohol content. Although this is also allowed in the production of Deutscher Tafelwein and Landweins, it is not permitted for QmP wines.

Qualitätswein mit Pradikat (QmP) –is the highest quality wine category in Germany.
There are six subcategories within the QmP category.  In ascending order of ripeness, they are: 

• Kabinett - the wine is made from grapes picked at the normal harvest time, yet must contain a minimum amount of natural sugar. Kabinett wines require the lowest quantity of natural sugar within the six subcategories. Therefore, they are usually the driest and least expensive.
• Spätlese – the word spätlese means late harvest. By allowing the grapes to remain on the vine for a longer period, they are riper and can produce wines that are rich and sweet.
• Auslese – the wine is made from perfectly ripened bunches of grapes that are handpicked and then pressed separately from other grapes.
• Beerenauslese – is a rich, sweet dessert wine that is made from specially selected handpicked individual bunches of overripe grapes that are pressed separately from other grapes. They are usually infected with Botrytis Cinerea (noble rot), which is a mold that causes the grape to shrivel, concentrating and intensifying both sugar and flavour. Additionally, the acidity levels remain high, enabling the wine to be balanced.
• Eiswein – ice wine is made from overripe grapes that have been left on the vines until they are frozen (-8°C).  They are pressed when still frozen, leaving the water behind as ice, while the concentrated sweet juice that is too full of sugar to freeze is extracted. This wine offers low yield, is labour intensive and is very risky because the grapes must stay on the vines until December or January.
• Trockenbeerenauslese – is made from individually selected berries that are infected by noble rot. These are intensely sweet, long-lived and expensive. To make a single bottle takes the grapes of six to eight vines. You could expect to make at least 15 to 20 bottles of cheap commercial wine from the same number of vines.

Contrary to some beliefs, the subcategories of QmP wines are not quality levels.  Rather, each indicates the degree of ripeness of the grapes at the time they are harvested. Each subcategory has a scale indicating the degrees of sweetness assigned to it.  Once the grapes are crushed, the degree of sweetness of the juice is measured (must weight) to determine which subcategory it falls into.   

There are a couple of facts you should know about the production of QmP wines. 

• A QmP wine cannot be assigned a level higher than it falls under.  For example, if the degree of ripeness of the must falls within the scale assigned for an Auslese, it cannot be assigned (or labelled) as a Beerenauslese, Eiswein or Trockenbeerauslese. However, this does not prevent the winemaker from labelling the wine as a category of a lower must weight.  For example, rather than making a mediocre Auslese from must that just meets the minimum requirement, the winemaker can label it as a lower ripeness such as Spatlese.  Odds are that a Spatlese made under this circumstance would be of high quality.
• Although QmP wines are categorized according to their degree of must weight (sweetness) at the beginning, this has no bearing on the final sweetness level of the finished product.  Although producers strive to produce a good quality sweet wine, some may wish to allow the wine to ferment for a longer period, thus creating a drier wine.  This may not be relevant to a Beerenauslese, Eiswein or Trockenbeerauslese, but you may certainly find a Spatlese that is drier than a Kabinett. 

Canada – VQA

Canada has its own appellation of origin system called VQA or Vintners Quality Alliance. The VQA is to Canada what AOC is to France, the DOCG to Italy and the QmP to Germany. Vineyards in particular regions produce the best wines year after year because of their soil, exposure and mesoclimate. By designating the appellation of origin on the label, winemakers offer a guide to distinguishing a consistent quality product.
There are two distinct wine-producing regions in Canada: the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. VQA recognizes three Designated Viticultural Areas (DVA) in Ontario (Niagara Peninsula, Pelee Island and Lake Erie North Shore) and four in British Columbia (Okanagan Valley, Similkameen Valley, the Fraser Valley and Vancouver Island). In Ontario, the VQA officially began in 1988, while in British Columbia it began in 1990. Only those wines designated as VQA will have this name or abbreviation indicated on the wine label.
In order for wines to be labelled as VQA they must be produced in a DVA and pass stringent rules. Some common rules that apply to both Ontario and British Columbia VQA wines are:

• VQA wines must be made from the classic noble European grape varieties such as Chardonnay, Riesling, Pinot Noir and Cabernet Sauvignon.  The only exceptions allowed to this rule are a few hybrids, such as Vidal in the production of ice wines. 
• All grape varieties must reach a specified minimum level of natural sugar must weight at the time of the harvest.
• Wines that carry the name of an individual vineyard, or the words Estate-Bottled, have to be made from 100% of the grapes grown in that particular area.
• Each vintage of a potential VQA wine must be submitted to an independent tasting panel of the provincially designated wine consultants.
• Single varietals must be made from a minimum of 85% of the most dominant grape variety making up that wine.

There are many other regions within Canada that produce commercially sold wines. Although they may not carry the VQA label, they still can be of good quality. Unlike VQA wines that have to be grown in specified areas, non-VQA wines can be made from must or wines imported from other countries, so long as they are blended with the required percentage of Canadian wines.         

Italy

Italy is the world’s largest wine producer and accounts for slightly less than 25 percent of the world’s total production. It is amazing that Italy can produce such quantity of wine since it is only three-fifths the size of France and approximately half of its area is too mountainous to cultivate. As a result of the large role wine plays in the Italian economy, the government moved to create a wine law to control the quality of this product in 1963. There are four controlled and protected categories of Italian wine.

Vino da Tavola (VdT) –is Italian for table wine. It refers to the lowest category of wine similar to France’s vin de table. VdT wines are fairly ordinary, yet there are many quality Italian wines with this classification. This is possible when wine is made that does not comply with the Italian wine regulations, such as using an unapproved grape variety, or the proportions don’t meet DOC regulations.

Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) - is equivalent to vin de pays. The regulations are slightly stricter than the VdT category, but not as strict as the following two categories. As with VdT, some wines in this classification can be of higher quality but don’t comply with the regulations.

Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) – this translates to Controlled Denomination of Origin. This classification is reserved for wines whose requirements are set down in regulations issued for each region to define their product.

Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) –The regulations set down for this classification are stricter than those of DOC. Only specified wines qualify for this higher classification, and each bottle must carry a government seal and be sold in no larger a vessel than five litres.

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Champagne and sparkling wine

Champagne - In order for a wine to be called champagne, it must be produced from the Champagne region, located in northern France. Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier are the grapes used to produce champagne. Champagne is produced through the Méthode Champenoise or the Traditional Method. Adding yeast and sugar to a dry wine, which is then bottled, creates a second fermentation. It is through the process of fermentation that carbon dioxide is produced, which gives the sparkle. The second fermentation takes place within the bottle, leaving sediment.  The removal process of the sediment takes place in two stages called remuage and degorgement.  Remuage is the method used to move the sediment towards the neck of the bottle by turning and tilting it gradually. Degorgement is the process of passing the neck of the bottle through a freezing solution, creating a small plug of ice. On removal of the cap, the pressure of the gas forces this block of ice holding the sediment out. The bottles can then be topped up with some cane sugar. The amount of cane sugar added depends on the degree of sweetness required in the final wine. By law, the total period of aging must be a minimum of fifteen months for non-vintage wines and a three-year minimum for vintage wines.

Sparkling Wine –There are three methods used to produce the sparkle in the wine. They can be made anywhere in the world and use any number of unspecified grape varieties:

Tank Method – second fermentation takes place in sealed pressurized tanks. The wine is then filtered from the sediment under pressure, receives some liqueur d’expedition (syrupy mixture of sugar and wine) and is bottled. The tank method is a faster, much less expensive method than bottle fermentation. The wine is handled in bulk, and the complicated remuage and degorgement processes are eliminated.

Transfer Method – is very similar to the traditional method. The major difference is that, instead of the remuage and degorgement steps, the wine, after a second fermentation in the bottle, is transferred to a pressurized tank. There, it passes through a filtration system to remove sediment.

Injection Method – is simply pumping carbon dioxide into a tankful of wine and bottling it under pressure so that the gas cannot escape. The bubbles produced in this method are large and fade almost at once when the wine is poured.

Dessert wines

Ice Wine / Eiswein   |   Ports   |   Sherry

Ice Wine / Eiswein

As the name implies, ice wine is made from grapes that have been frozen.  Healthy ripe grapes are left on the vines until the temperature falls to at least –8ºC, which usually occurs in December or January.  Since these grapes have to endure a series of freezing and thawing periods while on the vines prior to attaining the appropriate temperature for harvesting, only the heartiest and thick-skinned grapes can be used (such as Vidal or Riesling).  This process of freezing and thawing helps to gradually evaporate some of the water within the grapes. This helps to concentrate the acidity and sweetness levels of the remaining juice.  This concentration is further increased when the grapes are frozen.  When the grapes are pressed, the frozen water crystals are left behind and only the concentrated sweet juice is extracted.  This is made possible because the sweet juice has a lower freezing temperature than water. The harvest often takes place throughout the night or early morning to prevent the possibility of the rising sun from warming the temperature above –8ºC.

Ice wines are extremely expensive due in part to certain risk factors to the producers, the harvesting method, low yields and demand.  Leaving grapes on the vines for a prolonged period of time opens the door for potential loss.  The constant attack from birds and other animals, as well as the potential loss due to rot, has to be addressed by the vintner.  Some vineyards drape their vines with expensive nylon filaments (nets) to prevent loss due to birds.  In regards to the harvesting of the grapes, the cost is higher because it must be done by hand and not with a mechanical harvester.  Another factor is the low yields produced from each harvest.   The juice extracted from frozen berries is a fraction of what the yield would be if they weren’t frozen.  Lastly, there is a great demand for this product that is produced in such small quantities.  Since it requires a specific climate to produce a natural ice wine, only the most northerly located vineyards can produce it.  This would include Canada, Germany and Austria.  Eiswein, as it is called in Germany, is one of the six sub-categories of Qualitätswein mit Pradikat classification. Ice Wine or Eiswein has the potential to age for a long period of time, provided it is stored in the proper conditions.      

There have been some new styles of ice wine to hit the market. You can now find ice wines that are made from Gewürztraminer or Cabernet Franc (which is commonly rosé), and even ice wines that are sparkling.  Each is unique in its characteristics, relative to the varietal it is made from.

It should be noted that there is a practice allowed in some countries to artificially replicate the natural conditions required to produce ice wine.  Freshly picked grapes are placed into a cold room for freezing overnight, and then pressed immediately.  The freezing point of the grape juice is dependent on the concentration of sugars.  Any less ripened grapes will be frozen solid, allowing only the sweet juice of the ripened grapes to make up the wine.  These wines lack the character of a naturally produced ice wine.

Ports

Portugal is responsible for producing one of today’s most famous fortified wines, port. Although port-styled wines can be produced anywhere in the world, true port, or Porto, can only be produced in northern Portugal from grapes grown in the upper Douro Valley.   In making port, natural fermentation is only allowed to take place for a short period of time, usually between 36 and 48 hours. Brandy consisting of approximately 77% alcohol is then added to kill the yeast before it has had a chance to convert all of the sugars.  The end result is a very sweet, rich wine with an alcohol level generally at 20%.   Regardless of where port is produced, it is basically made in two styles: wood-aged and bottle-aged.

Vintage Port
In this instance the port producers will decide if a particular harvest (year) is good enough to warrant declaring the wine a Vintage Port. Consequently, some years when the wines do not meet the producers’ standards for vintage ports, they are simply not produced. If this is the case, the wines are blended with the wines from other vintages and sold as a non-vintage port with no year indicated on the label. If a vintage is declared, Vintage Port is then bottled after only two years in wood, and needs at least another 10 years in the bottle before it should be used. It leaves a heavy deposit in the bottle and, therefore, needs decanting. Vintage Port is deep purple in colour and has a rich flavour and sweetness. It is very hard and very tannic, needing years of bottle aging in order to soften up and develop the proper flavour and bouquet. Tradition among some people is to buy a bottle of Vintage Port from the same year as their child’s birth and store it until the child reaches legal drinking age. This also applies to anniversaries, reunions, etc.  

Late-Bottle Vintage Port
This is a port from a single year that is not quite up to the grade of a declared Vintage Port. It is kept about five years in wood so it matures sooner than it would if it were moved quickly into the bottle. Cask aging also gives a major portion of the potential sediment time to drop out, while the remainder is generally removed through light filtering.  Thus, decanting is not necessary. When this port is bottled, it is ready for immediate drinking.  It is light in colour and lighter in body than Vintage Port.

Tawny Port
Old Tawny Port is aged for a number of years in wood. The bright red and purple colours of the original wine soften through oxidation to a tawny brown, thus its name.  The process of oxidation also changes the fruitiness of the wine to a nutty flavour. Cask aging dissipates the tannins that are left behind when the wine is bottled. This style of port, therefore, contains little if any sediment and is ready to drink when bottled. Aged Tawny Ports are generally labeled 10, 20, or sometimes 30 years old, and to many people this implies that they are from a specific year. They’re not. This is just the average age of the blend, and there is no specific formula for working out this age. The wines must simply taste the way that the Instituto do Vinho do Porto feels that a 10, 20 or 30 year-old tawny should taste.

Colheita
These are best understood as Tawny Ports from a single year, bottled with the date of the harvest on the bottle. The law states that Colheita must be aged in wood for at least seven years, but it is generally aged for considerably longer. All wines should carry the date of bottling and should usually be consumed within a year of that date.

Ruby Port
This is the simplest type of port. The port is, as named, ruby red in colour with a much stronger aroma and flavour of fresh, sweet grapes.  It is a young blend of various years, with each blend trying to maintain a consistent and identifiable house style from year to year. Like Tawny Port, Ruby Port is also ready for immediate consumption as soon as it is bottled.

White Port

Actually a light golden colour, White Port is made solely from white grapes. The initial fermentation is usually allowed to take longer than for a red port, meaning White Ports are generally much drier than other ports.  They are gaining in popularity as an aperitif.

Single Quinta

Is a fairly recent development in the port trade. These are Vintage Ports from a single farm - or quinta -that somehow distinguished itself from the rest of the vineyards during what was otherwise not a declared year. They are generally good, but not outstanding years, and they are made in the same way as Vintage Ports. Most of them cost a lot less than declared Vintage Ports, and they are rarely released before the producer thinks them fit to drink. They are well worth watching for.

Crusted Port

These are blended from various vintages, but bottled young with little or no filtration, so they throw a deposit, or in other words a “crust”. Like Vintage Ports, they continue to develop in the bottle and need to be decanted prior to serving. 

As a general rule, red port is served at the end of a meal due to its sweet, rich flavour. White port makes an excellent aperitif and works well with certain soups.

Sherry

Spain is responsible for producing another of today’s most famous fortified wines, sherry.  Sherry-styled wines can be produced anywhere in the world but true (original) sherry can only be produced in southern Spain in the region surrounding Jerez.  Most sherry-styled wines aren’t produced like a true sherry, making them lower in quality and less expensive.  As of 1996, no other area in Europe is allowed to label its wines as sherry other than Spain.  

Although sherry ranges broadly in colour, flavour and sweetness, the two fundamental styles are Fino and Oloroso.  Sherry is produced with white grapes (primarily Palomino) that are allowed to ferment until fully dry, and it ranges anywhere between 11% to 14% alcohol.  The principal differences between the two styles are attributed to the use of a unique yeast called flor, and the amount of time allowed for maturation.

Fino-style sherries are the ones that use the unique yeast flor.  While the wine is fermenting in the barrels that are only filled to about 5/6th full, the flor forms a white skin-like surface. This surface yeast protects the wine from oxidation, feeds on any traces of residual sugar, which imparts its bone-dry taste, and keeps the original wine’s pale colour.  Fino is generally fortified to 15.5% alcohol, attains a delicate, tangy characteristic and is considered by many to be the world’s finest Sherry.  Fino sherries are meant to be consumed young and do not improve once bottled.

Amontillado is essentially a Fino sherry that has been allowed to age after the flor yeast has died, exposing it to oxygen. The flor yeast automatically dies when the wine is fortified (usually to about 17%), or it has been allowed to age for approximately 6.5 years when the flor fades.  This exposure to oxygen darkens the wine to an amber, or tawny, colour and imparts a rich and nutty flavour. 

Oloroso sherry does not use flor yeast. The absence of this protective yeast layer allows the air to oxidize the wine from the onset of fermentation.  This turns the wine from its original pale colour to a dark brown, and contributes to its bold and nutty flavour.  Oloroso sherries are usually fortified to around 18% alcohol. A true dry Oloroso should not be mistaken with the commercialized sweet, dark blend of common sherry that has wine added to attain its colour and sweetness.  Since Oloroso sherry is aged for a longer period, it tends to have a higher price tag.

Cream sherry is usually made from lower grade Oloroso that has sweetening and colouring wine added to it. It was developed in Bristol, England with Oloroso shipped in casks from Jerez. These are the sweetest and darkest of all sherries created initially for the British market.

The final stage in the production of a finished sherry is the blending.  Although there is the rare exception, practically all sherries are blended. The blending process is done by a system called solera.  Casks of different aged sherry are laid out in long rows (youngest at the top; oldest at the bottom) and stacked up four to five levels high.  Every year, approximately 1/3rd of the wine from each cask is removed from those located on the upper levels and added to those located directly below them. This system of blending ensures that the wine that is removed from the bottom casks that are ready for bottling will be consistent from year to year.  Therefore, these blended sherries will not indicate vintage. The sweetening and colouring wine that is used in some sherry can be attained by boiling down fresh grape must.  Depending on the style of sherry, a grape spirit known as aguardiente can be added for fortification. A few popular Spanish labelling descriptions that you may see are Viejo (old), Seco (dry), Dulce (sweet) and vino [VEE-noh] (wine).

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Proper storage of wine

It is not necessary to have a wine cellar to store wine properly. There is probably an area in your home that would be sufficient. There are, however, certain conditions that must be met in order for stored wines not to be adversely affected. These conditions are temperature, humidity, darkness and stillness.

Temperature –fluctuation in temperature is the most serious hazard for wine storage. The ideal wine storage temperature is between 10ºC and 15ºC. The cooler a wine is stored, the slower and possibly more interesting it will develop. The warmer it is stored, the faster it will mature.

Darkness - light is another enemy to wine. Strong light can adversely affect the taste of wine, particularly sparkling wine. Bottles made from clear or pale glass are affected by light quicker than dark bottles.

Humidity - it is important that the storage area not be too dry. This can lead to the cork drying out and shrinking, thus making an ineffective seal.

Stillness –it is important to store the wine in a place with little vibration to avoid prematurely aging the wine.

Temperature and serving order

Temperature

• Sparkling and sweet white wine - 5ºC-9ºC (41ºF-49ºF)
• Light red, sparkling rose, white wine - 10ºC-15ºC (50ºF-59ºF)
• Full-bodied red wine - 16ºC-19ºC (60ºF-68ºF)

Serving Order

• White before red (not always). It would probably be better to taste a light red wine before a full bodied or sweet white wine.
• Lighter before bolder.
• Dry before sweet.
• Younger before older.
• Lesser before finer.

The important thing here is to start light and work your way up.  You don’t want to serve a bold or sweet wine before a lighter/drier wine because it will overpower your taste buds.

Tasting terms

Acidic – describes a wine that has too much acid and not enough sweetness to make it balanced. The effect on the palate is similar to tasting straight lemon juice. This is what people refer to when they say a wine is too sour.

Balanced – a wine in which all components – acidity, sweetness, tannins and alcohol – are in proper proportions to create a pleasant-tasting wine.

Body - the perception of texture or weight in the mouth, mostly resulting from the amount of alcohol. The more body a wine has, the less like water it tastes.

Bouquet – unlike the aroma, this is a term for complex fragrances that develop in wine as it matures. Some examples would be oaky, spicy, smoky, grassy, flowery and buttery.

Corked – describes a wine that has been affected by a faulty cork. It results in a wine that has an odour and flavour of mould, wet cardboard or newspaper. A wine that has bits of cork floating in it is not a corked wine.

Fermentation – sugars in the grape juice are converted by enzymes in yeast into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Finish – the lingering taste that remains on the palate after the wine has been swallowed.

Legs –(also referred to as tears) after a wine has been swirled in the glass, droplets resembling tears run down the sides of the glass. This is due to the difference in surface tension between water and alcohol that creates a capillary effect. Also, the degree of alcohol and sugar content in a wine will affect the amount of time it takes the legs to reach the bottom. The higher the alcohol and sugar content, the slower the legs.

Must –the juice, pulp, skins and seeds of freshly crushed grapes.   

Nose –used interchangeably with aroma and bouquet. It is also referred to as smelling the wine: “The connoisseur nosed the wine.”

Oxidized –refers to wines that have had excessive exposure to oxygen, making the wine turn brownish and taste like vinegar. Often caused by a faulty cork that allowed too much air into the bottle.

Tannins – components that are extracted from the grape skins, seeds, stems and also oak barrels. Tannins often give a young red wine a noticeable astringency. As wine ages, the tannins break down, making the wine mellower and also creating sediment, which is a sign of a quality wine. The taste of tannins is often compared to the bitter taste of tea when it is made too strong.

Vintage –refers to the year that the wine was made. It is also referred to as the harvest.

Sugar rating

Many comments arise when the sweetness of a wine is discussed.  You may feel that the sugar rating on our bin labels does not best describe the amount of sugar in a particular wine.  Contrary to belief, the sugar rating is not subjective but rather scientific.  The exact level of residual sugar in a wine is measured and provided to us from each supplier in a quantity of grams per litre.  This level is then compared with a table to see where it lies to indicate the sugar code.  The table is as follows (0 is the driest):

One’s impression of a wine’s sweetness is sometimes influenced by the grape variety used in a particular wine.  This may occur when a wine is not properly balanced between acidity and sweetness, or if a wine borders on either end of the sugar scale, making it appear that it is off by one number. As well, a typical wine made from Riesling grapes may seem sweeter than indicated due to its fruity characteristic. In contrast, a red tannic wine may seem drier than indicated due to the bitter, mouth-drying characteristics of tannins.

There are several methods to produce a sweeter wine.  One method is to arrest the fermentation process prior to allowing the yeast to convert all of the fermentable sugar in the must into alcohol.  This can be done in several ways. One way is to add sulphur dioxide, which renders the yeast inactive.  Another way is to fortify the wine by adding brandy, which also stops fermentation. Since yeast only works between the temperatures of 5ºC & 35ºC, a popular way to halt fermentation is to decrease the must temperature. It should be noted that most types of yeast become inactive when the must reaches 15% alcohol.

A second method of producing a sweet wine is to start out with extra sweet grapes, like those used for making wines such as Beerenauslese, Trockenbeerenauslese or Ice wine/Eiswein.  The grapes harvested for these wines have enough natural residual sugar left in the wine after fermentation for it to be sweet.  A third method is to add sweet reserve (unfermented grape juice) to a dry wine just before bottling. It is commonly employed in the production of some true sherries and champagnes. This process is not to be confused with chaptalization, where sugar is added at the beginning of the fermentation process to elevate the alcohol level.

For those methods that have inactive yeast cells remaining after fermentation, it is necessary to separate them from the wine.  This can be done by centrifugation or sterile filtration.  Centrifugation, or centrifuging, separates the yeast cells from the wine by way of a high-speed rotating apparatus through centrifugal force. Sterile filtration is the process of passing the wine through filters that are so fine they are capable of removing minute particles.  Some winemakers claim that this process of filtration strips some of the wine’s flavour characteristics.

How to Start a Wine Cellar

For a wine lover, having your own cellar can be like a dream come true. If your budget is unlim­ited, this task can be easy. However, if we want to build our cellar with discipline and a certain level of logic while following our budget, it can seem more difficult. Click here for advice, tips and suggestions to start, maximize and improve our selection and use of wine in the cellar. It will also cover the essential elements for the purchase and selection of the cellar along with its maintenance and use.

Glossary

Aguardiente - a grape spirit added to wine for fortification.

Arrest – to stop

Burgundy - other than the Burgundy region and its styles of wines in France, it is a generic name used by countries outside of France for ordinary, inexpensive red wines.

Centrifugation – a means of separating yeast cells from a wine by way of a high-speed rotating apparatus through centrifugal force.

Chablis – other than the Chablis region and its styles of wines in France, it is a generic name used by countries outside of France for ordinary, inexpensive wines made from different grape varieties.

Chaptalization – the addition of sugar before or during fermentation to increase the level of alcohol.

Coulure - the failure of grape development after flowering that can be caused by extended periods of rain or very cold weather during flowering.

Decanting – separating wine from any sediment formed in the bottle.  Allow the bottle to set upright until all sediment settles to the bottom.  In one motion, pour the wine into a decanter (glass container) until you see the sediment reach the neck of the bottle, at which point you stop pouring. 

Hybrid – crossbreeding two different vine species to produce a hybrid with attributes of both species.

Late Harvest Wine - refers to wines made from grapes that have been picked towards the end of the harvest when they are very ripe (sweet).

Lees – sediment that accumulates during fermentation and aging, primarily dead yeast cells and small grape particles.

Mesoclimate – a climactic scale encompassing from tens of metres up to hundreds of metres.

Microclimate – a climactic scale encompassing from millimetres to a maximum of a few metres.  This is often used incorrectly when describing a vineyard’s climate (refer to mesoclimate).

Moderate Climate – mild and calm

Must – the juice, pulp, skins and seeds of freshly crushed grapes.

Must Weight – refers to a measurement of grape ripeness, which is an indicator of the potential alcohol of a wine after fermentation.  A refractometer or a hydrometer is capable of producing this measurement. 

Oxidization – refers to wines that have had excessive exposure to oxygen, making the wine turn brownish and taste like vinegar.

Phylloxera – is an insect (louse) that attacks the roots of grapevines and eventually drains them of their nutrients.

Residual Sugar – the total quantity of sugars remaining unfermented in the finished wine.

Rhein – this is the German name for the Rhine River.

Rhine - other than the Rhine region or river in Europe, it is a generic name used in the U.S. for table wines that are white and usually somewhat sweet.

Solera – is a blending and maturation system where fortified wines of different ages are combined to create a consistent quality.

Sterile Filtration – passing wine through filters that are so fine they are capable of removing infinitesimal particles.

Veraison – is the intermediate stage of berry development that marks the beginning of ripening.  The berries change from a small, hard green berry into a larger, softened and coloured berry.

Vinification – the process of making wine.

Vintner – is a person who makes or sells wine.

Vitis Labrusca – is the vine species native to North American.  It is resistant to vine and pest disease, produces high yields and is suited to a cooler climate.  Unfortunately it has a foxy flavour.

Vitis Vinifera (Noble Varieties) - is the vine species native to Europe that produces the majority of today’s wine worldwide. There are thousands of varieties of this species with Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Riesling among the best known.